Few passages shape conversations about stewardship as decisively as Malachi 3:6–15. The text is often quoted at offering times, invoked in debates about “storehouse tithing,” and appealed to in discussions of divine blessing and material provision. Yet the prophetic oracle is more than a fundraising prooftext. It is a covenant lawsuit that summons a repentant people to return to the unchanging Lord, exposes a moral and liturgical failure that the prophet calls “robbery,” and holds forth the promise of renewed fellowship under the favor of God (Verhoef, 1987). Read in its literary, historical, and canonical contexts, Malachi reframes tithing as a sign of returning to God rather than a mere mechanism of revenue. The central claim of this essay is that Malachi 3:6–15 presents the tithe as a concrete enactment of repentance and covenant fidelity, an act that, rightly performed, participates in the larger gracious economy of God’s faithfulness. From an evangelical perspective, the passage summons the Church to gospel-shaped giving that is God-centered, community-oriented, and missionally generative, without reducing divine blessing to a formulaic prosperity scheme.
This post proceeds in five movements. First, it locates Malachi within its postexilic setting and explains the rhetorical form of disputation that structures the book. Second, it offers an exegetical reading of Malachi 3:6–7, focusing on divine immutability and the call to return. Third, it examines Malachi 3:8–12, attending closely to key Hebrew terms and the temple economy of “tithes and contributions.” Fourth, it explores Malachi 3:13–15, where cynical speech reveals the spiritual malaise that giving was meant to remedy. Fifth, it draws Biblical-theological connections and practical applications for New Covenant believers, showing how the grace of giving in the New Testament affirms the moral core of Malachi while transposing its cultic form into the life of the Church.
Malachi Postexilic Disputation and Covenant Renewal
The prophet Malachi spoke during the late Persian period after the temple’s reconstruction (515 B.C.) and amid spiritual lethargy, social injustice, and cultic negligence (Baldwin, 1972; Hill & Walton, 2009). The Book’s signature technique is disputation: God asserts a claim; the people challenge it with a skeptical question; God answers with evidence and judgment (Boda & McConville, 2012). Six such disputations expose failures among priests and people, blemished sacrifices, faithlessness in marriage, injustice, and the withholding of tithes, while calling Israel to “return” so that the Lord may “return” to them (Malachi 3:7; English Standard Version Bible, 2016).
The disputation concerning tithes falls squarely within this pattern. The presenting symptom is financial disobedience; the underlying disease is a heart turned away from the Lord. The prophetic remedy is not first a percentage but a posture: repentance.
Divine Immutability and the Call to Return
The oracle opens with a theological declaration that grounds the summons to repent:
“For I the LORD do not change; therefore you, O children of Jacob, are not consumed. From the days of your fathers you have turned aside from my statutes and have not kept them. Return to me, and I will return to you, says the LORD of hosts. But you say, ‘How shall we return?’” (Malachi 3:6–7, English Standard Version Bible, 2016)
Two phrases deserve close attention. First, “I the LORD do not change” renders the Hebrew ’ănî YHWH lōʾ šānîtî (אֲנִי יְהוָה לֹא שָׁנִיתִי). The verb šānâ (שָׁנָה) means “to change” (HALOT; Koehler & Baumgartner, 1994–2000). Here it asserts God’s immutability, not as a sterile metaphysical axiom but as covenantal constancy: because the Lord’s character and promises do not change, “the children of Jacob” are “not consumed.” Divine immutability, in Malachi, is the doctrinal basis of divine mercy (Verhoef, 1987).
Second, “Return to me, and I will return to you” pivots on the verb šûb (שׁוּב), “to turn, return,” a central term in prophetic calls to repentance (BDB; Brown et al., 1906). The people have “turned aside” from God’s “statutes” (ḥuqqîm, חֻקִּים), and the Lord commands a relational reversal. Notably, the people’s question, “How shall we return?” is not necessarily humble. Within Malachi’s disputation pattern it likely expresses willful obtuseness, as if to say, “What are we doing wrong?” The Lord will answer with a concrete, testable practice that embodies repentance: bring the full tithe.
The Evangelical Significance
Doctrine and discipleship meet in this nexus. The Church proclaims the unchanging character of God most fully in the Gospel of Jesus Christ, in whom all the promises of God find their “Yes” (2 Corinthians 1:20). Because God does not change in holiness or mercy, repentance is never a leap into the unknown but a return to a covenant Lord who is already disposed to restore. The grace that grounds repentance also empowers it.
Exegesis of Malachi 3:8–12
The Lord’s answer to “How shall we return?” is stark:
“Will man rob God? Yet you are robbing me. But you say, ‘How have we robbed you?’ In your tithes and contributions. You are cursed with a curse, for you are robbing me, the whole nation of you. Bring the full tithe into the storehouse, that there may be food in my house. And thereby put me to the test, says the LORD of hosts, if I will not open the windows of heaven for you and pour down for you a blessing until there is no more need. I will rebuke the devourer for you, so that it will not destroy the fruits of your soil, and your vine in the field shall not fail to bear, says the LORD of hosts. Then all nations will call you blessed, for you will be a land of delight, says the LORD of hosts.” (Malachi 3:8–12, English Standard Version Bible, 2016)
“Will man rob God?” The Charge
“Rob” translates the rare verb qābaʿ (קָבַע), “to rob, defraud” (BDB; HALOT). The rhetoric is intentionally shocking: how can a human “rob” the sovereign Lord? The answer is covenantal. Certain gifts set aside for the Lord, “tithes and contributions,” have been withheld. The noun “tithes” renders maʿăśēr (מַעֲשֵׂר), literally “a tenth,” while “contributions” translates tĕrûmâ (תְּרוּמָה), a “present, offering, heave offering” assigned to the priests (Numbers 18:8–19; Leviticus 7:32–34). Withholding these was not mere stinginess; it was misappropriation of what belonged to God and his ministers. In Malachi’s covenantal frame, this failure signals a broader spiritual defection. To rob the Lord is to rupture communion.
“Bring the Full Tithe into the Storehouse” The Remedy
The imperative “bring” calls for the resumption of faithful giving, and “the full tithe” (kol-ha-maʿăśēr, כָּל־הַמַּעֲשֵׂר) implies that partial payment or selective compliance had become ordinary. The “storehouse” (ʾôṣār, אוֹצָר) refers to temple store rooms for grain, wine, and oil (Nehemiah 10:38–39; 12:44; 13:5). The explicit purpose, “that there may be food in my house,” reminds the hearers that tithes sustained the Levites and priests, who had no tribal land inheritance (Numbers 18:20–24). Covenant worship and communal justice were vulnerable whenever this supply chain broke down.
“Thereby Put Me to the Test” The Promise
The Lord invites Israel to “test” him: ûḇeḥānûnî (וּבְחָנֻנִי) from bāḥan (בָּחַן), “to test, try, examine.” Elsewhere, testing God is forbidden (Deuteronomy 6:16), but here the Lord sovereignly initiates a demonstration designed to vindicate his faithfulness (Boice, as cited in many expositions). The imagery brims with covenant echoes.
“Open the windows of heaven” (ʾărubbôt haššāmayim, אֲרֻבּוֹת הַשָּׁמַיִם) recalls both the floodgates of the deluge (Genesis 7:11) and the eschatological abundance envisioned by the prophets (2 Kings 7:2; Isaiah 24:18). The promise is not mechanistic enrichment but covenantal restoration: rain in its season, crops that flourish, households fed, Levites resourced.
“Pour down for you a blessing until there is no more need” evokes Deuteronomy’s blessings for covenant fidelity (Deuteronomy 28:1–14). Where disobedience had inaugurated “the curse,” obedience reopens the channel of divine favor.
“I will rebuke the devourer” uses gāʿar (גָּעַר), “rebuke,” to describe God’s authoritative command to the “devourer” (hāʾōḵēl, הָאֹכֵל), probably a locust swarm or crop disease (cf. Joel 1–2). God’s providence encompasses both provision and protection; he both “opens” and “rebukes.”
The horizon widens in verse 12: “Then all nations will call you blessed, for you will be a land of delight.” The phrase “land of delight” translates ʾereṣ ḥēfeṣ (אֶרֶץ חֵפֶץ), “a desirable land.” God’s renewed blessing on Israel testifies to the nations. Covenant faithfulness becomes missional witness.
The Evangelical Significance
From an evangelical vantage, three implications stand out.
Tithing as a practice of repentance. The remedy for “robbery” is not sentiment but action: return the portion that belongs to God for the care of his house and servants. Right worship and just structures require concrete obedience.
Blessing as covenantal, not transactional. The promise of “windows of heaven” is set within the Deuteronomic covenant and is not a blank check for personal affluence. God’s blessing is holistic, material sufficiency, communal stability, missional credibility, and always God-centered.
Testing as doxological demonstration. God’s invitation to “test” him is not an endorsement of manipulating divine favor. It is an enacted confession that the Lord alone sustains his people. Under the New Covenant, the Church similarly gives not to leverage God, but to display his sufficiency and to fuel his mission.
Exegesis of Malachi 3:13–15
The disputation concludes by exposing the corrosive speech that rationalizes disobedience:
“Your words have been hard against me, says the LORD. But you say, ‘How have we spoken against you?’ You have said, ‘It is vain to serve God. What is the profit of our keeping his charge or of walking as in mourning before the LORD of hosts? And now we call the arrogant blessed. Evildoers not only prosper but they put God to the test and they escape.’” (Malachi 3:13–15, English Standard Version Bible, 2016)
“Hard” (קָשֶׁה, qāšeh) words betray a mercantile spirituality. If righteousness does not yield visible profit, why bother? The phrase “keeping his charge” renders mišmartô (מִשְׁמַרְתּוֹ), a term for faithful observance of God’s ordinances. To “walk as in mourning” likely refers to fasting and penitential practices. In a world where the “arrogant” (zēdîm, זֵדִים) seem to “prosper,” piety appears futile. The people even invert Malachi’s theology of testing: it is the evildoers who “put God to the test” and “escape.”
In canonical perspective, this lament resonates with wisdom literature (e.g., Psalm 73) and prophetic struggle (e.g., Jeremiah 12:1–4). Malachi will answer, in the verses that follow (3:16–18), with the promise of divine remembrance and eschatological differentiation between the righteous and the wicked. For now, what matters is that cynical calculations had displaced covenant love. Disobedience in giving was one fruit of that deeper root.
Tithing in the Old Testament: A Brief Biblical-Theological Survey
To situate Malachi 3 within the Old Testament’s teaching, three moments are important.
Pre-Mosaic antecedents. Abraham gives “a tenth” (maʿăśēr) to Melchizedek (Genesis 14:20), and Jacob vows a “tenth” to God (Genesis 28:22). These precedents predate Sinai and exhibit a pattern of gratitude and consecration. They do not yet constitute an enforceable law, but they reveal a symbolic proportion of devotion associated with worship (Blomberg, 1999).
Mosaic legislation. The Torah formalizes multiple tithing practices. Leviticus 27:30–33 stipulates that “every tithe of the land” is “the LORD’s.” Numbers 18:21–32 designates the tithe for the Levites, who in turn tithe to the priests. Deuteronomy 14:22–27 describes an annual festival tithe, consumed before the Lord in celebration; 14:28–29 and 26:12–15 legislate a triennial “poor tithe” to meet local needs. Scholars debate how these tithes were coordinated, whether they were distinct levies that could total more than ten percent in a given year, or overlapping descriptions of a single tithe deployed to multiple ends (Verhoef, 1987; Baldwin, 1972). However construed, the system yokes worship, clergy support, and social provision.
Postexilic administration. After the exile, Nehemiah renews the tithe system, appointing treasurers for the storehouses and rebuking neglect that left Levites under-resourced (Nehemiah 10:37–39; 12:44; 13:5, 10–13; English Standard Version Bible, 2016). Malachi speaks in this same world. Withholding the tithe damages temple service and charity and signals covenant infidelity.
Two observations follow. First, the tithe directs human hearts and communal structures toward God. It enacts the confession that all provision comes from the Lord: “The earth is the LORD’s and the fullness thereof” (Psalm 24:1, English Standard Version Bible, 2016). Second, the tithe is centripetal and centrifugal: it draws gifts into the sanctuary (“my house”) and sends provision outward to the vulnerable (“the sojourner, the fatherless, and the widow,” Deuteronomy 14:29, English Standard Version Bible, 2016). Repentance, worship, and justice converge.
From Israel’s Storehouse to the Church’s Mission - New Testament Trajectories
The New Testament does not legislate tithing for the Church, but it does confirm the deeper moral and spiritual logic of Malachi.
Jesus and the tithe. Jesus rebukes scribes and Pharisees for tithing garden herbs while neglecting “justice and mercy and faithfulness.” “These you ought to have done, without neglecting the others” (Matthew 23:23; Luke 11:42, English Standard Version Bible, 2016). The Lord neither abolishes the tithe as a Jewish practice nor imposes it on Gentile disciples; he insists that the weightier matters of the Law define true obedience. Giving that eclipses justice and mercy fails the Kingdom test.
Generous grace-giving. The apostolic instruction emphasizes grace, proportion, intentionality, and joy. Believers set aside gifts “on the first day of every week” as the Lord prospers them (1 Corinthians 16:2). Giving is “cheerful” (hilaros), not reluctant or coerced (2 Corinthians 9:7). It is proportionate and sacrificial, mirroring the self-giving of Christ (2 Corinthians 8:1–9). Such giving is a ministry of worship (“a fragrant offering”) and a participation in God’s supply for his people (2 Corinthians 9:10–12; Philippians 4:18–19).
Support for Gospel ministry and the poor. The right of ministers to material support is affirmed (1 Corinthians 9:4–14; Galatians 6:6; 1 Timothy 5:17–18), and care for the poor remains non-negotiable (Acts 2:44–45; Galatians 2:10; James 1:27). The “storehouse” is not a temple room but the gathered Church and its mission.
Testing and blessing transposed. The New Testament cautions against “testing the Lord” as unbelief (Acts 5:9; 1 Corinthians 10:9), yet it also promises that God’s grace abounds toward generous givers: “God is able to make all grace abound to you” so that “you may abound in every good work” (2 Corinthians 9:8, English Standard Version Bible, 2016). The “windows of heaven” become, in Christ, the superabounding provision of grace for ministry, not a guarantee of personal wealth.
The upshot is that while the tithe as a binding legal minimum is not commanded for Christians, the principle of firstfruits, proportionate generosity, and the priority of God’s house and mission are emphatically affirmed. Many believers therefore treat ten percent as a wise, initial benchmark in a life of expanding generosity, rather than a ceiling or a lever to extract blessing (Blomberg, 1999). The governing question is not “How little may I give?” but “How does the Gospel teach me to give?”
Key Hebrew Terms in Malachi 3:6–15: A Lexical Excursus
A close reading benefits from noting several Hebrew terms that shape the theological contours of the passage.
šānîtî (שָׁנִיתִי) — “I do not change” (3:6). Stresses divine immutability. God’s unchanging character secures Israel’s survival (HALOT).
šûb (שׁוּב) — “return” (3:7). The standard prophetic verb for repentance, connoting relational turning to the Lord (BDB).
ḥuqqîm (חֻקִּים) — “statutes” (3:7). Fixed ordinances of God’s covenant, often associated with cultic obligations (BDB).
qābaʿ (קָבַע) — “rob” (3:8). To defraud; rare, heightening rhetorical shock (HALOT).
maʿăśēr (מַעֲשֵׂר) — “tithe” (3:8, 10). Literally “a tenth”; in Torah, consecrated portions for Levites and festal worship (Leviticus 27; Numbers 18; Deuteronomy 14).
tĕrûmâ (תְּרוּמָה) — “contributions” (3:8). Elevation offering allotted to priests (Numbers 18:8–19).
ʾôṣār (אוֹצָר) — “storehouse” (3:10). Temple storeroom; administrative node for cultic supply (Nehemiah 10:38–39).
ʾărubbôt (אֲרֻבּוֹת) — “windows, floodgates” (3:10). Metaphor for divine outpouring (Genesis 7:11; 2 Kings 7:2).
bāḥan (בָּחַן) — “test” (3:10). To assay metal; here, an invited demonstration of God’s faithfulness.
gāʿar (גָּעַר) — “rebuke” (3:11). God’s authoritative command to restrain threats (cf. Zechariah 3:2).
hāʾōḵēl (הָאֹכֵל) — “the devourer” (3:11). “The eater,” likely locust or blight; personified threat to harvest.
ʾereṣ ḥēfeṣ (אֶרֶץ חֵפֶץ) — “land of delight” (3:12). A desirable land; the telos of covenant blessing.
mišmartô (מִשְׁמַרְתּוֹ) — “his charge” (3:14). A trust or duty entrusted by God (BDB).
šāwʾ (שָׁוְא) — “vain” (3:14). Emptiness, futility; here, skeptical dismissal of piety’s value.
Lexically, Malachi moves from divine immutability to human return; from the crime of defrauding God to the command to supply his house; from the divine invitation to test to the promise of protection and public blessing; and finally to the exposure of cynical, profit-driven spirituality. The vocabulary narrates a theology.
Returning to God, Not Merely “Paying God”
The pastoral thrust of Malachi 3:6–15 may be summarized thus: tithing is not the cause of God’s nearness; it is a sign of it. The imperative “Return to me” sets the interpretive horizon. Giving that is not an overflow of repentant love risks becoming a talisman. Conversely, repentance that leaves finances untouched remains sentimental. In covenant reality, God reclaims all of life. He places a particular claim on certain portions, not because he needs them, but because we do: as a means of sanctification, solidarity, and sustained worship.
From an evangelical perspective, this is intensified by the Gospel. Jesus Christ, our great high priest, has offered himself once for all (Hebrews 7–10). In him, God has “opened” the heavens not merely for rain but for the outpouring of the Holy Spirit (Acts 2:33). Believers are therefore invited into a life where “returning to God” includes the joyful consecration of resources for the Church’s worship, witness, and works of mercy. The tithe, then, functions for many Christians as a pedagogical proportion, a starting rhythm in a larger vocation of generosity shaped by the cross.
“Is Tithing Christian?”: Law, Gospel, and Wise Practice
Because the New Testament does not command tithing for the Church, some conclude that the category is obsolete. Others, reading Malachi prescriptively, insist that Christians must tithe ten percent to their local church. A wise evangelical approach navigates between reduction and legalism.
Against reduction. The New Testament does not shrink giving below Old Testament norms; it deepens it. If anything, grace expands generosity. The Macedonians, amid poverty, “overflowed in a wealth of generosity” (2 Corinthians 8:2, English Standard Version Bible, 2016). Jesus praises a widow who gives “all she had to live on” (Mark 12:44, English Standard Version Bible, 2016). The impulse of the Gospel is not minimalism.
Against legalism. The tithe is not a Christian tax. To impose a flat ten percent as a universal law risks obscuring the New Testament’s accent on willing, cheerful, proportionate giving and may burden the poor while excusing the affluent. Pastoral counsel must be attentive to circumstances.
For wise benchmarks. Many believers and churches commend the tithe as a formative benchmark, an initial discipline that trains the heart and structures the budget toward firstfruits generosity. The goal is not to arrive at ten percent but to grow beyond it as the Lord enables, with eyes on worship, justice, and mission (Blomberg, 1999).
“Windows of Heaven” and the Prosperity Question
Malachi 3:10–12 has been co-opted to support prosperity teaching that treats giving as a lever for personal wealth. Evangelical faith must reject such distortions for at least three reasons.
Covenantal context. The promised blessing is agricultural stability and communal flourishing for a covenant nation under the Mosaic economy. It is not a universal formula for individual enrichment. New Covenant promises center on conformity to Christ and sufficiency for good works (2 Corinthians 9:8), not guaranteed affluence.
Christological center. In Christ, God’s richest blessing is himself. The Spirit’s indwelling, the community of the Church, and the hope of glory are the primary gifts. Material provision is real and to be prayed for (Matthew 6:11), but discipleship entails contentment, generosity, and cross-bearing (1 Timothy 6:6–10; Luke 9:23).
Missional telos. In Malachi, blessing leads to witness: “all nations will call you blessed” (3:12, English Standard Version Bible, 2016). Under the Gospel, God enriches his people “in every way to be generous in every way” (2 Corinthians 9:11, English Standard Version Bible, 2016). The purpose of provision is generosity, not self-indulgence.
Therefore, the Lord’s invitation to “test” him by obedient giving should be heard as a call to trust his sufficiency for his mission and our needs, not as a promise of luxury.
Returning to God with Open Hands
How might Malachi 3:6–15 reframe the Church’s stewardship?
Begin with repentance. Before budgets and percentages, hear the call: “Return to me.” Confess the ways in which finances reveal rival trusts, self-protection, status, control, and ask the Lord to align your heart with his unchanging love. Repentance is not merely turning from mismanagement; it is turning to the God who “does not change” and therefore does not consume the contrite.
Prioritize the Lord’s house and mission. In Israel, tithes sustained temple worship and justice. In the Church, the baseline priority is the local congregation and its Gospel work, including the support of those who labor in preaching and teaching and the care of the poor (1 Timothy 5:17–18; Galatians 6:6, 10).
Practice proportionate, planned, cheerful giving. Commit, as a household or individual, to a proportion that reflects the firstfruits principle. Many find ten percent a stretching but attainable beginning. Plan your giving (1 Corinthians 16:2). Seek joy, not guilt (2 Corinthians 9:7).
Integrate generosity and justice. Jesus’ rebuke in Matthew 23:23 warns against meticulous tithing with a hard heart. Ensure that your giving advances justice, mercy, and faithfulness, locally and globally. Evaluate budgets by the Great Commandment and the Great Commission.
Expect God’s sufficiency, not a windfall. Pray with confidence that God will “open” the needed provision and “rebuke” the threats that would keep you from generosity. Test him in this, not by setting terms, but by stepping into obedience and watching his faithfulness supply “seed to the sower” (2 Corinthians 9:10, English Standard Version Bible, 2016).
Cultivate institutional integrity. Malachi rebukes corruption among priests and negligence among laypeople. Churches should ensure transparent stewardship, competent administration of “storehouses,” and accountability in benevolence. Ordered structures honor God and serve people.
A Pastoral Reading of the Outline: Returning, Repenting, and Rejoicing
The outline embedded in the Malachi passage maps a spiritual journey that remains deeply relevant.
Returning to God instead of robbing God (Malachi 3:6–7)
God’s immutability is the ground of hope. Because he “does not change,” his covenant love persists despite human inconsistency (Malachi 3:6, English Standard Version Bible, 2016). Yet this very constancy indicts presumption. The call “Return to me” is both diagnosis and cure. Repentance (šûb) is not a preliminary step to relationship; it is the relational turn itself. The question “How shall we return?” becomes a mercy when it yields to obedient clarity.
How Israel needed to repent (Malachi 3:8–12)
The prophet’s astonishment, “Will man rob God?” highlights the audacity of withholding consecrated portions. Robbery is not defined by absolute amounts but by covenant claims: the “tithes and contributions” are holy to the Lord. The remedy is to “bring the full tithe,” a concrete act that reorders worship, funds ministry, and feeds the needy. The divine invitation to “test” his faithfulness promises not an indulgent surplus but a God-given sufficiency, guarded by his rebuke of the “devourer.” The end is public witness: a “land of delight,” a people whose ordered generosity displays the goodness of their God.
What good is it to serve God? (Malachi 3:13–15)
Cynicism is a subtle robber. “It is vain to serve God” rationalizes disobedience under the guise of realism. Malachi neither denies that evildoers can prosper for a time nor offers a simple calculus of visible reward. Instead, he exposes the heart: service measured by “profit” has already mispriced God. The antidote (3:16–18) is twofold: reverent fellowship that speaks faith and the assurance that God writes a “book of remembrance.” The faithful are his “treasured possession” (segullâ, not in the quoted verses but in the continuation), and in the end the distinction between the righteous and the wicked will be manifest.
The Delight of a People Who Return
Malachi 3:6–15 is a summons to return to the God who does not change. That return takes economic form in the tithe, because repentance is embodied and worship is resourced. The Lord’s startling invitation to “test” him in obedience displays his covenant generosity: he opens what we cannot open and closes what we cannot close. Yet the telos is not private plenty. It is a people called “blessed” by the nations, a land called “delight,” a Church whose life together, resourced by cheerful, proportionate, planned generosity, proclaims the sufficiency of Christ.
For evangelicals, the path forward honors both the particularity of Israel’s tithe system and the universality of its moral logic. We are not under the Mosaic code. We are under grace. But the grace that frees us from legalism liberates us for lavish generosity. If ten percent helps train the heart toward firstfruits faithfulness, let it be a beginning, not an end. If the “storehouse” today is the gathered Church and its mission to the ends of the earth, let the windows of heaven be sought in prayerful confidence for all the provision needed to worship, to witness, and to serve the least of these.
Above all, let the order of Malachi direct our steps: return first to the unchanging Lord, and then bring the offering that he appoints. In such returning, God returns to us, not as a vending machine of blessings but as our covenant God whose steadfast love endures forever.
References
Baldwin, J. G. (1972). Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi (Tyndale Old Testament Commentaries). InterVarsity Press.
Blomberg, C. (1999). Neither poverty nor riches: A biblical theology of material possessions. InterVarsity Press.
Boda, M. J., & McConville, J. G. (Eds.). (2012). Dictionary of the Old Testament: Prophets. InterVarsity Press.
Brown, F., Driver, S. R., & Briggs, C. A. (1906). A Hebrew and English lexicon of the Old Testament. Clarendon Press. (BDB)
English Standard Version Bible. (2016). Crossway. (All biblical quotations are from the ESV.)
Hill, A. E., & Walton, J. H. (2009). A survey of the Old Testament (3rd ed.). Zondervan.
Koehler, L., & Baumgartner, W. (1994–2000). The Hebrew and Aramaic lexicon of the Old Testament (M. E. J. Richardson, Trans.). Brill. (HALOT)
Verhoef, P. A. (1987). The books of Haggai and Malachi (New International Commentary on the Old Testament). Eerdmans.
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